Neuro Science  

  

 

 

 

 

What is Cognition / Cognitive Process ?

 

Cognitive processing refers to the mental activities through which we acquire, interpret, understand, and use information. It encompasses a broad range of complex functions that our brain uses to navigate and interact with the world. These functions are interrelated, often working together to facilitate our thought processes and behaviors.

 

Putting it in plain languange, Cognitive processing is all about how our brain deals with information. It's how we take in, make sense of, and use what we learn. It involves many different tasks our brain does to help us understand and interact with the world around us. These tasks are often connected and work together to support how we think and behave.

 

 

 

Overview of Cognitive Process

 

 

The overall cognitive process can be illustrated as follows. You may get different illustration from different persons even though most of those illustration would have some commonalities. This is just my personal version of the cognitive process.

 

 

Following is a brief description of each of the components (processing step) in the illustration.

 

Input/Sensory Register: Sensory information from the environment enters the system. This is the first step where our senses (like sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste) pick up information from the world around us.

 

Transduction/Early Sensory Processing: Sensory receptors convert the sensory stimuli into neural signals. Early sensory processing in the brain extracts basic features from these signals. Some sensory input may be filtered out at this stage. In other words, the information our sensary organ pick up is turned into signals that our brain can understand. This process is called transduction. Our brain starts to sort out and recognize the basic features of these signals. Some less important information might be ignored at this stage.  

 

Early Perception/Pre-attentive Processing: Some degree of automatic perceptual processing occurs, further analyzing and organizing the sensory input. The brain automatically starts to make sense of and organize the sensory information. This happens without us needing to pay direct attention to it.

 

Attention/Selective Attention: Attention filters the sensory input, directing resources toward the most relevant or salient information. Our attention acts like a spotlight, focusing on the most important or interesting parts of the sensory information. This helps us to pay attention to what is most important and ignore the rest

 

Further Perception/Attentive Processing: The selected sensory information undergoes further, more detailed perceptual processing. This may include perceptual filling-in to create a coherent perceptual experience.  In other words, the information we pay attention to is processed even more by our brain. Sometimes, our brain might fill in gaps in the information to help us make sense of what we're sensing. This leads to a complete understanding of the sensory information.

 

Working Memory (Short-term Memory): The processed information is held in working memory, where it's actively manipulated and integrated with other information. This is where the brain keeps the processed information ready for us to use right away. Here, we can think about it, link it with other information, and use it to make decisions.

 

Long-Term Memory: Information from working memory can be stored here, and information in long-term memory can be brought back into working memory. Some information from our working memory is stored in our long-term memory for us to remember for a long time. We can also bring back information from our long-term memory into our working memory when we need to use it again.

 

NOTE : The main topics in this note will mostly focused on early part of processing before memory. Memory and further processing (like learning) will be discussed in a separate note : Memory/Learning.

 

Following is the summary of the cognitive process in tabular format for simplicity.

Stage

Description
Input/Sensory Register Sensory information from the environment enters the system. Our senses pick up information from the world around us.
Transduction/Early Sensory Processing Sensory receptors convert stimuli into neural signals. Early sensory processing in the brain extracts basic features. Some sensory input may be filtered out.
Early Perception/Pre-attentive Processing Automatic perceptual processing occurs, further analyzing and organizing the sensory input. This happens without us needing to pay direct attention to it.
Attention/Selective Attention Attention filters the sensory input, directing resources toward the most relevant or salient information. Our attention acts like a spotlight, focusing on the important parts of the sensory information.
Further Perception/Attentive Processing The selected sensory information undergoes further, more detailed perceptual processing. This includes perceptual filling-in to create a coherent perceptual experience.
Working Memory (Short-term Memory) The processed information is held in working memory, where it's actively manipulated and integrated with other information.
Long-Term Memory Information from working memory can be stored here, and information in long-term memory can be brought back into working memory.

 

 

 

Visual Processing as an Example

 

Let me exaplan about the visual data processing as an example with the parts of the brain that are involved at each step. (NOTE : It would be beneficial to take a look at this note to understand the description here)

  • Input: Light from the environment enters your eyes. This light contains visual information about the bird flying against the backdrop of the sunset. This is the sensory input.
  • Sensory Register: The cells in your retina capture this light and convert it into electrical signals. These signals form a brief, raw image of the scene. This image is temporarily held in the sensory register. At this stage, the image is not yet "seen" or understood; it's simply a pattern of light and dark, color, and motion. The cells in your retina (in your eyes) capture this light and convert it into electrical signals. These signals form a brief, raw image of the scene that is sent to the brain.
  • Transduction/Early Sensory Processing: The electrical signals are sent from your retina to your brain via the optic nerve. In your brain, early sensory processing begins. Simple features of the image, such as lines and edges, colors, and movement, are detected by specialized cells in the visual cortex. In other words, the electrical signals from the retina are sent to the brain via the optic nerve. In the brain, these signals first reach the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus, which is a relay station for visual (and other) information. From the LGN, the signals are sent to the primary visual cortex (V1), located in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain. In the V1, basic features like lines and edges, colors, and movement are detected.
  • Attention: Among all the visual information processed, your brain then determines where to focus its attention. Perhaps the movement of the bird or the bright colors of the sunset draw your attention. The parietal lobe, specifically the posterior parietal cortex, plays a major role in directing visual attention. It helps determine where to focus among all the visual information processed.
  • Attentive Processing/Further Perception: Once your attention is drawn, further perception takes place. Now, your brain processes the attended visual information in more detail. The bird is recognized as a bird, and the background is recognized as a sunset. Your brain may also fill in gaps based on past experiences and knowledge, such as the type of bird it is or recognizing the type of sunset. The identified features are then sent to other areas of the visual cortex for further processing. The ventral stream (also known as the "what pathway") processes information about object identity (like recognizing the bird) and is located in the temporal lobe. The dorsal stream (or "where pathway") processes spatial location and motion and extends into the parietal lobe.
  • Short-Term Memory/Working Memory: The perception of the bird flying across the sunset is held in your working memory. Here, you might think about the bird, remember the last time you saw such a sunset, or decide to take a photo. The prefrontal cortex plays a critical role in working memory, holding the perceived image of the bird and sunset as you think about it, decide to take a photo, or relate it to other information.
  • Long-Term Memory: If this visual experience is significant or emotional to you, it might be transferred to your long-term memory. The next time you see a similar sunset or the same type of bird, this memory might be triggered, enhancing your recognition and understanding of the scene. The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is crucial for transferring information from working memory into long-term memory. When you later recall the image of that sunset or bird, various regions of the cortex associated with the stored information will be activated.

 

Following is the summary of the cognitive process in tabular format for simplicity.

Stage Description Neural Region on the Path
Input Light containing visual information from the environment enters the eyes. Eye (Retina)
Sensory Register Cells in the retina capture this light and convert it into electrical signals. These signals form a brief, raw image of the scene that is sent to the brain. Retina
Transduction/Early Sensory Processing The electrical signals from the retina are sent to the brain via the optic nerve. In the brain, these signals first reach the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), from where they are sent to the primary visual cortex (V1). Here, basic features are detected. Optic Nerve, LGN in the Thalamus, V1 in the Occipital Lobe
Attention Among all the visual information processed, the brain determines where to focus its attention. The movement of the bird or the bright colors of the sunset might draw attention. Parietal Lobe (Posterior Parietal Cortex)
Attentive Processing/Further Perception Once attention is drawn, further perception takes place. The brain processes the attended visual information in more detail. The bird is recognized as a bird, and the background is recognized as a sunset. Temporal Lobe (Ventral Stream), Parietal Lobe (Dorsal Stream)
Short-Term Memory/Working Memory The perception of the bird flying across the sunset is held in working memory, where it may be actively manipulated or related to other information. Prefrontal Cortex
Long-Term Memory If this visual experience is significant or emotional, it might be transferred to long-term memory. The next time you see a similar sunset or the same type of bird, this memory might be triggered. Hippocampus, Various Regions of the Cortex

 

 

 

Why we have illustion ?

 

 

Literal meaning of the term illusion can be defined as follows :

  • perception of something objectively existing in such a way as to cause misinterpretation of its actual nature - Merriam Webster
  • a perception that represents what is perceived in a way different from the way it is in reality. - Dictionary.com
  • a misrepresentation of a “real” sensory stimulus—that is, an interpretation that contradicts objective “reality” as defined by general agreement - Britanica

 

 

How illusion can occur at each stages of cognitive process ?

 

Illusions can potentially occur at any stage of the cognitive process. They can result from errors or distortions in how we perceive, pay attention to, interpret, remember, and recall information.

At each stage, the brain is working to make sense of the information it receives, and it does so based on the input data as well as what it has learned from past experiences. Illusions essentially highlight the shortcuts and assumptions our brains make in this process. It's important to note, though, that these shortcuts and assumptions are generally very useful, as they allow us to process a large amount of information quickly and efficiently. Illusions are interesting because they are instances where these normally effective processes lead to incorrect or unexpected outcomes. Followings are brief summary of how it happens at each stage of the cognitive process.

  • Input: This is the information our senses collect from the world. Sometimes, this input can be misleading to begin with, like a picture that is designed to look like something it's not. This can create an optical illusion.
  • Sensory Register: This is the initial storage place for raw sensory information. Illusions can occur if the sensory register misinterprets the raw sensory data, such as mistaking shadows for actual objects.
  • Transduction/Early Sensory Processing: This is the stage where our senses convert physical signals (like light or sound waves) into neural signals. Errors in this conversion process can create illusions. For example, a bright light can temporarily overload our eyes, causing us to see spots.
  • Attention: Our attention determines which sensory information we focus on. Illusions can occur when we focus on certain aspects of a stimulus and ignore others. For example, in the famous "gorilla illusion," viewers focusing on a basketball game fail to notice a person in a gorilla suit walking through the scene.
  • Attentive Processing/Further Perception: This is the stage where we consciously interpret and understand sensory information. Illusions can occur here if we misinterpret the information. For instance, our brain might interpret lines of equal length as being different lengths due to the context (like in the Müller-Lyer illusion).
  • Short-Term Memory/Working Memory: Illusions can occur if we misremember information. For example, if you glance at a clock and it seems to take longer than a second for the second hand to move, this is known as the "stopped clock illusion."
  • Long-Term Memory: Our long-term memories can also contribute to illusions. Our past experiences and knowledge can influence how we interpret sensory information. For example, a drawing might look like random lines and shapes until we recognize it as something familiar, like a face.

 

 

Does every types of illusion happens at every stages of cognitive process ?

 

NO. Not every type of illusion occurs at every stage of the cognitive process. Different types of illusions are associated with different stages of the process, depending on the nature of the illusion.

 

For example, optical illusions are often associated with the early stages of perception, where sensory information is being collected and processed. These can include illusions related to color, size, or perspective, which often occur due to the ways in which our visual system interprets visual cues.

 

On the other hand, cognitive illusions, such as the illusion of memory or illusions of understanding, often occur at later stages of the cognitive process, such as in short-term or long-term memory, or in the processes of attention and decision-making.

 

So, while it's possible for illusions to occur at any stage in the cognitive process, not all types of illusions will occur at every stage. The specific stage at which an illusion occurs often depends on the specific characteristics of that illusion.

 

 

 

Visual Illusion Example : Checker Shadow

 

The Checker Shadow is a special picture made by a professor named Edward H. Adelson. It shows a pattern like a chessboard with a shadow on it from a green tube. On the board, there are two spots, marked as A and B, and they look like they have different gray colors. However, the amazing part is that A and B are really the same color! This picture shows us how our brain can change what we see based on what's around and what it thinks should be there.

 

If the explanation does not make clear sense to you, ask yourself a simple question as follows :

    Are the square A and B same color ?

If you say 'NO, they are different color', you have illusion.  But don't get disappointed.. you are not the only one who see them in that way. I think most of the person (even though I cannot say 100% of the person) would have the same illusion.

 

Source : Checkershadow Illusion by Edward H.Adelson

 

If I have illusion when I say A and B have different colors, does it mean that they are same color in reality ?  

YES !!!.

How can you prove they are the same color ?

A simple way would be to ask computer that does not have the illusion like us. I checked the RGB values on pixels on several squares as marked below.

One obvious thing is that the square A and B shows the same RGB value, but looks pretty different to us. This is an illusion.

RGB pickup for a specific pixel : IMAGECOLORPICKUP.COM

 

Now let's think about how / where this illusion happens along the path of the cognitive process that was described in previous section.

  • Input: The visual input is an image of a checkerboard with a shadow cast over part of it. Two specific squares are highlighted, one in the shadow (square A) and one outside the shadow (square B).
  • Sensory Register: Our eyes register the image, including the light and dark squares, the shadow, and the two highlighted squares.
  • Transduction/Early Sensory Processing: Our eyes convert the light coming from the image into electrical signals. The physical light intensity (luminance) coming from both squares A and B is the same
  • Attention: Our attention is drawn to the two highlighted squares and the shadow across the checkerboard.
  • Attentive Processing/Further Perception: This is where the illusion really takes hold. Our brain interprets the squares as being different shades because it takes into account the shadow. It assumes that square B, being in a shadow, should be darker, so if it appears the same shade as square A (not in the shadow), it must actually be lighter. This is known as color constancy, and is a powerful perceptual mechanism that usually helps us see colors consistently in different lighting.
  • Short-Term Memory/Working Memory: We continue to perceive the squares as different colors as we examine the image and perhaps move our attention around it.
  • Long-Term Memory: Our past experiences and knowledge contribute to the illusion. We know from experience that shadows make things look darker, so our brain uses this knowledge when interpreting the image.  Our brain knows from past experience that objects in a shadow generally appear darker than they actually are. So, when it sees square B in the shadow, it compensates for the expected shadow effect by perceiving it as lighter than it appears in the image.

 

 

Illusions: Missteps or Masterstrokes of Perception?

 

Why we have such a illusion ?  Do we have it as a result of defective cognitive process ? or is it a kind of evolved feature which has its own purpose or usage ?

 

Illusions as shown in the examples are not considered defects in our cognitive system. Rather, they are often seen as evidence of the sophisticated ways in which our brains process information.

 

For example, the Checker Shadow illusion reveals how our brains use context to interpret sensory information. In everyday life, we often encounter objects in varying lighting conditions, including in shadows. To make sense of these scenes, our brains have developed mechanisms like color constancy, which allows us to perceive the color of an object as constant, even when lighting conditions change.

 

This kind of context-based processing allows us to interact more effectively with our environment. It enables us to recognize objects in a variety of lighting conditions, anticipate how objects will appear in different contexts, and make more accurate judgments about the properties of objects.

 

So while optical illusions can certainly be surprising and sometimes disorienting, they are generally seen as signs of our cognitive system's complexity and adaptability, rather than as defects. They illustrate the interesting and often counterintuitive ways in which our brains work to interpret the world around us

 

 

 

What does Digital Technolgy do on our congnitive process - Making us smarter or dumber ?

 

The simple answer would be : it make us smarter in some way and make us dumber in some other aspect.

The increasing reliance on digital technology, including search engines like Google and artificial intelligence like GPT, has profound effects on our cognitive processes. There are both positive and negative impacts. It has both negative and positive impact. In some way, digital technology can be very helpful, but we also need to be careful. We should still practice thinking deeply, remembering things, and solving problems on our own.

 

 

Positive Impact

  • Information Access and Knowledge Expansion(Learning More): With the internet and AI, we have almost unlimited access to information. This allows us to learn more than ever before and expand our knowledge base. Digital technology makes it easier to acquire new knowledge and skills.
  • Cognitive Offloading(Doing Less Work): Digital tools can reduce our cognitive load by taking care of tasks like remembering appointments, calculating complex equations, or navigating new cities. This can free up cognitive resources for other tasks. In other words, these technologies can do some of the thinking for us. They (not we) can remember things, do hard math, and help us find our way in new places. Thanks to this help, we can spend more of our mental resources for other things.
  • Complex Problem Solving (Solving Hard Problems): AI and digital technology can assist in solving complex problems that might be difficult or impossible for humans to solve on their own. They can process large amounts of data, identify patterns, and provide solutions quickly. In orther words, AI and digital technology can help us solve problems that are too hard for us to solve alone. They can look at a lot of information and find answers fast.

 

 

Negative Impact

  • Memory and Retention (Forgetting More): As we offload more tasks to digital tools, we may become less proficient at certain skills. For example, the use of GPS navigation may weaken our natural sense of direction and spatial skills. Similarly, reliance on search engines may impact our ability to remember information. In other words, as we let digital tools do more work for us, we might forget how to do these things ourselves. For example, if we always use GPS to find our way, we might forget how to read a map.
  • Shallow Information Processing(Understanding Less): Because of the abundance of information available online, we may skim or browse through information without deeply understanding or retaining it. This is sometimes referred to as the "Google effect" or "digital amnesia." In other words, because there is so much information online, we might not spend enough time to really understand it. We might only read a little bit and then move on.
  • Reduced Critical Thinking (Thinking Less): With AI providing answers and solutions, there may be less incentive for users to think critically or independently about problems. This could lead to less creative problem solving and a lack of deep understanding of complex issues. In other words, with AI giving us answers, we might not think about problems ourselves. This could make it harder for us to come up with new ideas or understand difficult things.
  • Overreliance (Relying Too Much): If we become too reliant on these tools and they malfunction or are unavailable, we may feel lost or incapable. This can lead to stress and anxiety. In other words, if we always need these tools and then they stop working or are not available, we might not know what to do. This can make us feel stressed and worried.

 

 

How the digital technology can impact on each steps of cognitive process ?

 

Let's get into this a little further and think of how relying on digital technology can influence on each stages of cognitive process we outlined at the beginning of this note.

  • Input/Sensory Register: Digital technology can alter our sensory input by exposing us to a wide array of stimuli. This could lead to overstimulation and may challenge our ability to filter and process information effectively. For example, the constant barrage of notifications from smartphones could potentially overwhelm our sensory register. In short, Digital technology like smartphones can sometimes give us too much information at once, which can be overwhelming.
  • Transduction/Early Sensory Processing: This process converts sensory data into a form that can be understood by our brains. Digital screens, with their bright lights and high resolution, can impact how we process visual and auditory data. For example, prolonged exposure to screens can cause eye strain and potentially disrupt our visual processing (That is, looking at screens for a long time can make our eyes tired and might make it harder for us to understand what we see)
  • Early Perception/Pre-attentive Processing: This automatic process helps us identify what's important in our environment. With digital technology, there is so much information available that it may be difficult to determine what's important or relevant, leading to potential information overload. In other words, because digital technology gives us too much of information too quckly, it can be hard to decide what is important.   
  • Attention/Selective Attention: Digital technology often involves multitasking (e.g., checking email while watching a video), which can affect our ability to focus on one task at a time. This divided attention can lead to lower efficiency and accuracy in our tasks. In other words, if we use digital technology to do many things at once (like checking email while watching a video), it might be harder for us to focus.
  • Further Perception/Attentive Processing: With the convenience of digital technology, we might rush through information without thoroughly understanding it. We might become less patient and more inclined to seek quick answers, which may reduce the depth of our understanding. In short, with digital technology, we might rush through this and not fully understand what we are learning.
  • Working Memory (Short-term Memory): Digital technology can offload some of our working memory tasks (like remembering appointments or phone numbers). This can be helpful, but it might also weaken our working memory skills if we rely on technology too much. In other words, Digital technology can help us remember things, but if we use it too much, we might forget how to remember things ourselves   
  • Long-Term Memory: The frequent use of search engines and AI could potentially affect our motivation to retain information in long-term memory. If we know we can easily look up information, we might not try to remember it. On the other hand, digital tools can also aid in memory retention through methods like digital flashcards or reminders. In other words, Using digital technology like search engines might make us lazy to remember things, since we can just look them up again. But digital tools can also help us remember things if we use them properly.

 

 

 

What is dual process theory ?

 

Dual process theory is a framework used to explain how people think. It is a psychological framework that suggests our cognitive functioning involves two distinct modes of thought. One mode operates quickly, automatically, and intuitively, without the need for conscious effort. The other mode is slower, more deliberate, and analytical, requiring conscious thought and effort. These two modes often work together, allowing us to navigate both familiar and new situations effectively.

 

 

The two modes : Type 1 (System 1) and Type 2 (System 2)

 

System 1(Type1) operates automatically and quickly, with little or no effort and no sense of voluntary control. It's responsible for our intuitive, instinctual, and automatic reactions and judgments. It's the part of our brain that allows us to perform tasks without conscious thought, like driving a car along a familiar route, understanding simple language, or recognizing an object.

System 2(Type2) allocates attention to the effortful mental activities that demand it, including complex computations and conscious, reasoned decision-making. This system is slower, more deliberate, and more analytical. It's responsible for anything that requires attention and conscious effort, like learning a new language, solving a complex math problem, or making a decision based on careful consideration of options.

 

 

Transition between the two modes

 

There are cases where transition happens between the two modes, for example starting from Type 2(System 2) to Type 1(System 1) or in vice versa. Followings are some of the examples :

 

Type 2 to Type 1 transition :

  • Driving a Car: When you first learn to drive, you must consciously think about every action. You engage System 2 to remember to check your mirrors, signal before you turn, apply the brakes gently, etc. However, as you gain experience, these actions become more automatic and shift to System 1. Experienced drivers often find themselves arriving at destinations without consciously thinking through each step of the drive.
  • Playing a Musical Instrument: When you first start learning an instrument, you have to consciously think about how to read the notes, how to position your fingers, etc. – engaging System 2. Over time, as you practice, these actions become more automatic, shifting into System 1. A skilled musician can play a piece of music without consciously thinking about every note.

 

Type 1 to Type 2 transition :

  • if an experienced speaker who normally speaks fluently (a System 1 process) is asked to explain the grammar rules and sentence structures they're using (which requires conscious analytical thinking), they would need to engage System 2. Similarly, someone who naturally picks up language patterns might need to engage System 2 when trying to understand the formal grammar rules in a classroom setting.

 

 

Brain Regions for Each Mode

 

I think the two process theory is based more on theoretical discussions and has not been heavily investigated in terms of real experiments and neurological research. However, there would be some research results that you would find.

 

Image Source : Dual-Process Theories in Social Cognitive Neuroscience

 

System 1 might be associated with areas like the limbic system, basal ganglia, and cerebellum, which are involved in emotional responses, memory, automatic perceptual processing, and habit formation.

 

System 2 is often linked with areas of the brain like the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in executive functions like working memory and abstract reasoning.

 

 

 

Reference

 

 

 

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